Peering Through the Barrier

When and where has the lattice design been used as a window, a door, or a barrier in ancient cultures?

Lattice designs have been prominently used in ancient to modern cultures primarily in regions such as Eastern and Southeast Asia, the Islamic world, India, Nepal, parts of the Ottoman Empire, and even medieval Europe. 

In architecture, they trace back to over 3,000 years, with evidence showing their use in ancient Chinese architecture from circa 1000 BCE (Chiou, 1996 & 1997). This long history makes lattice work one of the enduring architectural elements, widely adapted and evolving through centuries in different cultural contexts (Winn n.d.: passage 3, Shi & Lerner, 2020: passage 1). They have been prevalent in traditional buildings from early historical periods, embodying both functional and cultural significance throughout the ages (Lalvani, 1989; Qiong & Sikkha, 2024).

Geographic Locations

China and the Wider Expanse 

In China, a prominent region where latticework is an integral part of traditional architecture, extensively used in windows, doors, and barriers. Chinese lattice windows and doors reflect an advanced level of craftsmanship and cultural symbolism, often seen in private schools, ancient gardens, vernacular houses, palaces, and temples, playing both an aesthetic and a practical role (Chiou, 1997; Beisi & Yingying, 2011; Qiong & Sikkha, 2024). The pattern diversity in lattice doors and windows demonstrates a rich aesthetic and functional tradition, combining ventilation, lighting, and privacy (Beisi & Yingying, 2011; Pheng, 2001). These lattices also serve symbolic roles, conveying cultural narratives and adding ornamental detail (Pheng, 2001). The diversity of lattice designs continued through dynasties such as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), during which the patterns became more elaborate (Majewski & Wang, 2009).

Porcelin Lattice Window - Palace in Veit Nam (Whitehouse 2025).

Evolution of lattice patterns in different dynasties

The evolution of lattice patterns across various dynasties highlights their dynamic role in reflecting cultural identity, technological advancement, and aesthetic values in architectural design. In traditional Chinese architecture, lattice patterns evolved progressively, demonstrating a rich variety of geometric and symbolic motifs that were deeply intertwined with cultural meanings. Early dynasties emphasized simpler geometric designs, while later periods, particularly during the Ming and Qing dynasties, saw the emergence of more intricate and fine lattice work, incorporating elaborate geometric and floral motifs, such as the “back-pattern”, the “three cross six” pattern, and the "Begonia" pattern, which conveys cultural values and symbolism (Yi, 2018). These detailed patterns not only enhanced the decorative appeal but also embodied cultural symbolism intended to bring good fortune and harmony to inhabitants (Qiong & Sikkha, 2024; Anjing et al., 2024; Yi, 2018).

In southern China, particularly in Guangdong, certain dynasties introduced movable lattice door panels that were divided into upper and lower sections, allowing flexible control over ventilation and privacy. These practical innovations highlight the adaptation of lattice designs to local climatic conditions and cultural usage, especially in indigenous cultures such as the Baiyue also called  Hundred Yue, or simply Yue, who were various ethnic groups who inhabited the regions of southern China and northern Vietnam during the 1st millennium BCE and 1st millennium CE, alongside influences from the Central Plains Han culture. This blending of cultural elements led to a unique stylistic evolution in lattice patterns within traditional southern Chinese dwellings (Song & Liao, 2022).

Across these different regions and dynasties, lattice designs evolved from simple functional elements to highly symbolic and sophisticated artistic features. They embodied the cultural heritage of the times while addressing practical architectural needs such as ventilation, privacy, and the modulation of light, illustrating a sustained tradition of craftsmanship and design innovation over centuries (Qiong & Sikkha, 2024; Shrestha, 1981; Xu et al., 2024).

Symbolism

In Chinese lattice art, motifs often depict legendary symbols such as dragons, which embody core cultural values like power, auspiciousness, and protection. The dragon motif traces back to early records and bronze script symbols, representing profound mythological significance within Chinese tradition. On doors, partitions, and windows, motifs are mostly derived from traditional designs with specific meanings, such as storks, deer, kylins (Chinese mythical beasts), pied magpies, bats, peonies, and fu (the Chinese character for happiness), all symbolizing longevity, good health, and wealth (). Other motifs include patterns illustrating creation myths, flood legends, and philosophical ideas, often found in wood-carved lattice doors. These carvings serve as “visual symbols of stories” that connect architectural elements to cultural narratives and folk proverbs (Adejumo, 2021; Duggan, 2019; Ren, 2021).

These patterns often integrate motifs symbolizing harmony, good fortune, and natural elements, seen prominently in traditional window lattices in regions like Lingnan and Suzhou (Anjing, 2024; W Zhang et al 2024; Anjing & Sirivesma 2024). 

• Animal and Plant Motifs: These motifs often represent good fortune, prosperity, and harmony with nature. For example, the plum blossom symbolizes resilience and purity, while citrus motifs signify wealth and happiness.

• Philosophical and Cultural Symbols: Some lattice patterns reflect hidden philosophical ideas, aiming to deepen understanding of traditional Chinese culture and express cultural identity.

• Good Luck Symbols: Certain characters and motifs, such as "fu," symbolize good luck and auspiciousness embedded within lattices on doors and windows.

• Lattice patterns are integral to traditional architectural elements prevailing in vernacular architecture and gardens.

(Lee & Chen, 2011; W Zhang et al, 2024; Qiong & Sikkha; 2024; Anjing & Sirivesmas, 2024; Wang, 2021).

Evolution of Buddhist motifs in Chinese Lattices

In Chinese culture, religious influences, particularly from Buddhism, have profoundly affected lattice motifs. Buddhist motifs, imported from India and Central Asia, are incorporated in lattice designs, bringing with them new spiritual and symbolic meanings that transformed existing lattice designs (Luo 2020). These motifs often embody Buddhist principles, serving as visual representations of spiritual ideas such as enlightenment, protection, and cosmic order, symbolising spiritual ideals and serving as a medium to express religious and hidden philosophical meanings rooted in traditional beliefs. They often integrate religious symbolism alongside social hierarchy and cultural identity (Borikar et al., 2023; Saypanova, 2024; Shamim, 2024).

Early Buddhist art in China during the Han dynasty integrated lattice patterns as decorative elements imbued with religious significance. For example, lattice designs edged with incised lines appeared as symbolic decorations on ritual objects (Hung 1986). These patterns not only adorned structures but also functioned as a medium for expressing the subtle philosophical and religious concepts of Buddhism within the built environment.

As the religious syncretism between Buddhism and indigenous Chinese beliefs deepened, lattice door designs evolved, incorporating complex symbolic meanings that transcended purely ornamental purposes (Laing 1988). The incorporation of Buddhist-inspired lattice work in windows and screens served to communicate hidden philosophical messages and spiritual ideals, reflecting both religious devotion and social status (Anjing & Sirivesmas 2024).

Moreover, Buddhist lattice patterns influenced the broader aesthetic vocabulary of Chinese architecture, especially in garden settings where they often symbolize harmony between humanity and nature, resonating with Buddhist cosmology (Anjing & Sirivesmas 2024). The usage of these motifs within lattice structures can be viewed as an architectural transmission of Buddhist teachings, embedding sacred geometry and symbolism into the rhythm and framework of daily life (Anjing & Sirivesmas 2024; Luo 2020; Laing 1988; Hung 1986).

Influence in Southeast Asia and Korea

But it wasn’t only in China where the Chinese designs were incorporated. They are also seen in buildings across Southeast Asia and Korea (Figures). These would have been built during dynasties of Chinese expansion or when the ordinary people moved into the adjacent countries to escape. Chinese lattice patterns significantly influenced local architectural styles by blending traditional Chinese craftsmanship with regional aesthetics, cultural symbolism, and environmental adaptations (Anjing et al. 2024; Qiong & Sikkha 2024; Song & Liao, 2022; Wang, 2021).

Historical Reasons for Chinese Lattice Adoption in Southeast Asia and Korea

Symbolism, Identity, Cultural Exchange and Diplomacy

Chinese lattice work carried symbolic meanings that appealed to local elites and immigrant communities as markers of cultural heritage and social status, reinforcing identity within diverse societies.

Chinese lattice designs found in Southeast Asia, especially in regions with strong Chinese diaspora communities like Peranakan settlements, became integral elements of local architecture. (Peranakan communities are made up of native-born people of mixed local and foreign ancestry, particularly prevalent in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia.) These lattices were incorporated in windows, doors, and partitions, serving both functional roles and aesthetic purposes characterised by intricate symmetrical patterns (Anjing et al., 2024: passage 7, Hassan, 2015: passage 9). 

Chinese lattice patterns that spread to Southeast Asia through maritime trade routes, migration, and political alliances brought cultural and architectural influences that merged with local traditions (Kumala et al., 2023). In places like Yogyakarta and Melaka, Chinese lattice work became a part of traditional Peranakan houses and mosque architecture, respectively, demonstrating how Chinese craftsmanship was adapted to local climatic conditions such as tropical heat and humidity by promoting ventilation and natural lighting while providing privacy (Armani 2014; Beynon 2010). The cultural and trade ties dating back centuries facilitated the transmission of lattice design motifs and construction techniques. Southeast Asian architectural forms thus assimilated Chinese lattices as symbolic markers of ethnic identity and status within multicultural port cities, while also responding effectively to environmental needs. Still, however, they maintain core functional aspects and decorative traditions while adapting to local cultural contexts, exemplifying cultural syncretism along major trading networks that created hybrid architectural forms that maintained Chinese symbolism (Wongpradit et al. 2022; Hung et al. 2013; Kumala & Widyastuti, 2023: passage 1; Koudela & Yoo, 2014: passage 2). 

Environmental and Technological Adaptation

Climate adaptation was an important functional feature of lattice designs and they were modified to suit the tropical climate's demands. Their openwork allowed airflow to cool interiors and filtered harsh sunlight which was essential in hot and humid Southeast Asia. This practical functionality reinforced the adoption and adaptation of Chinese lattice patterns within local vernacular and religious architecture, such as mosques, temples, and traditional Peranakan houses (Kumala & Widyastuti, 2023: passage 1; Beynon, 2010: passage 11; Kelley & Milone, 2005: passage 16).

Connected to all these points is the exchange of technological and craft works. Skilled artisans and craftsmen migrated or exchanged knowledge across regions, enabling the transmission and local innovation of lattice design and construction techniques that continued to evolve as new material was being used and the new environments in which the buildings were being built.

Chinese Lattice in Korea

In Korea, the adoption of Chinese lattice patterns dates back to the Three Kingdoms period, with substantial integration by 628 AD during the Silla kingdom's consolidation. This integration was driven by political and cultural exchanges with China, through which Korean architecture embraced Chinese ornamental and practical elements to refine their building aesthetics and functions.

Korean lattice designs, while inspired by Chinese originals, gradually developed distinctive characteristics by adapting to local aesthetics and customs. Patterns often featured vertical and horizontal arrangements with comb motifs, balancing simplicity and elegance suitable to Korea’s architectural style, especially prominent in royal palaces and aristocratic houses during the Chosun dynasty (Hong et al. 2020; Choi 2024). The adaptation process reflected Korea’s cultural identity and practical needs while honoring the sophisticated craftsmanship introduced from China (Steinhardt 2011; Yang 2017; Choi 2019).

Lattice patterns in royal palaces

The lattice patterns found in royal palaces, particularly during Korea's Joseon (Chosun) dynasty, from 1392 until 1897 (505 years), represent a refined synthesis of Chinese ornamental motifs and local architectural identity. The Huijeongdang Hall of Changdeokgung Palace (Figures) is an example where lattice patterns were prominently integrated into window and door designs. Traditional lattices exhibit complex geometric arrangements that offer structural simplicity with an elegance that combines Korea’s architectural ethos and Confucian-inspired cultural values. These emphasized order and harmony, ideals prevalent in the royal court at the time. Characterized by vertical, horizontal elements, and incorporating distinctive comb patterns, they combined aesthetic elegance with practical functionality. As in, regulating natural light and airflow, and providing both privacy and climate control suited to Korea’s temperate environment with its distinct seasons of cold winters and hot summers.

The patterns were meant to emphasize not only beauty but also symbolic meanings, reinforcing cultural values and royal authority through architectural language. Such latticeworks were studied and applied in various cultural products beyond architecture, such as traditional Korean clothing design, demonstrating the deep interconnection between palace aesthetics and broader cultural expressions.

Similarly, in Southeast Asia, while royal palaces may have adopted Chinese lattice designs, the motifs were often adapted to local contexts both stylistically and functionally (Figures). For example, in traditional Peranakan houses influenced by Chinese heritage, lattice panels served as windows and partitions with intricate carvings and varied patterns to foster ventilation and shade suited to the tropical climate. In these palaces or elite residences, lattices symbolized wealth and status while integrating classical Chinese forms with local craftsmanship and environmental adaptations. This interplay between imported techniques and indigenous artistry highlights how royal and aristocratic architecture used lattice design as a medium of cultural identity and social distinction across East and Southeast Asia (Kumala & Widyastuti 2023).

Thus, lattice patterns in royal palaces illustrate how Chinese architectural elements were elaborated and localized, becoming emblematic of a broader cultural dialogue. Their presence signified not only aesthetic appreciation and functional necessity but also political symbolism, embedding notions of refinement, order, and identity within monumental architecture (Kumala & Widyastuti 2023).

Evolution of Korean lattice characteristics

Korean lattice designs were not static repetitions of Chinese models but, like in all areas, involved reinterpretations adapted to local materials, construction methods, and symbolic meanings. For instance, the geometric precision and differing repetitive motifs in palace lattices reflect both technological craftsmanship and philosophical ideals of balance, reinforcing social hierarchy and cultural identity within the royal court. Lattices influenced wider cultural practices as well, inspiring traditional garment designs (such as vest patterns), thus showing their integration beyond architecture into broader Korean artistic expressions.

The evolution of Korean lattice patterns also demonstrates careful climatic responsiveness. Unlike Southeast Asian lattices designed primarily for ventilation in tropical heat, Korean lattices implemented denser, more insulating forms that balanced openness with protection from the cold, supporting year-round usability without compromising elegance. This functional adaptation underscores how environmental conditions shaped stylistic and technical innovations locally characterising the synthesis of Chinese architectural legacies with native cultural symbolism, climatic pragmatism, and artistic refinement values unique to the peninsula.

India

As another area that can do with innovative methods of keeping cool during the day, India also has centuries of experience crafting lattice windows, or as they call them, jaalis. The term jaali, meaning net, is used in Central and South Asia. Cut from marble or red sandstone in ornamental patterns, jaali was a distinct architectural feature in India between the Mughal period from the 16th century to the 19th, and even going back to the Rajput period spanning from the 12th through 16th century. Jaalis most elaborate examples were carved out of stone, such as in the Taj Mahal, built in the Indian city of Agra in the mid-17th Century, the Hawa Mahal, or "Wind Palace", built in 1799 by Rajput rulers in Jaipur, has 953 lattice screen windows or the Sidi Saiyyed Mosque, built back in 1573 (Azmi, 2022)

Methods and Materials

In traditional jaali, the holes are almost exactly the same size as the thickness of the marble or sandstone, which “works to reduce the direct glare of sunlight while allowing diffused illumination," says Yatin Pandya, a heritage conservation architect (Azmi 2022). Like in other lattice carving functionality, Jaali’s cooling feature relies on the Venturi Effect, similar to an air conditioning unit. ‘When air passes through the holes, it speeds up and flows farther. Due to the small apertures, the air gets compressed, and when the particles are released, it gets cooler’ (Pandya in Azmi 2022).

Early jaali work with multiple geometric shapes was built by carving into stone, in geometric patterns (first appearing in the Alai Darwaza of 1305 at Delhi besides the Qutub Minar); later on, the Mughals used very finely carved plant-based designs (as at the Taj Mahal). They also often added pietra dura inlay to the surrounding decoration using marble and semi-precious stones (Figure )(Lerner 1984, pp. 156–157; Thapar 2004).

As stone could be an expensive material that was often more difficult to work with, Jaalis would also be made from other materials, more commonly wood, sometimes decorated with glass panes, and sometimes even oyster shells. These would be collected from the flattest specimens, then cleaned, polished, cut into squares or rectangles, and then fitted into the wooden frames, where they would filter out much of the harsh sunlight (Figure)(Shubham 2024; Sahoo 2024).

Origins

The earliest sanctuaries in India, dedicated to Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, were often dimly lit and confined, resembling natural caves. Worshippers gathered in front of the sanctuaries' doorways for prayers and offerings. To control the harsh daylight entering the temples, screens known as jaalis were used to filter and soften the light, encouraging devotion and directing attention to the sacred images. The tradition of using jaalis persisted in later Indian architecture, including Hindu and Jain temples. Over time, the designs of jaalis evolved, incorporating geometric and naturalistic patterns. With the advent of Islamic architecture in Gujarat, the use of jaalis expanded and became a prominent feature in mosques and tombs, following the same symbolic importance of light in Islam. The adoption of jaalis in Islamic buildings shows a fusion of architectural styles and motifs from Hindu, Jain, and Islamic traditions, largely influenced by the guilds of masons working for patrons across different cultural backgrounds (Haidar & Goswami, 2023).

Stories Through Stonework

The windows in Rani Ki Vav (lit. 'The Queen's Stepwell)' feature elaborate carvings that depict scenes from Hindu mythology, adding layers of narrative and spiritual meaning to the walking area (Shubham 2024). For one mythic example, the Sidi Saiyyed mosque in Ahmedabad has jaali that exhibits the traditional Indian tree of life motif. As for the divine light itself, the Mughal arts developed a kind of language of light symbolism and allusion, an important way in which jaalis were designed and used. “Celestial imagery in Mughal art exalted the power of the sun and the mysticism of the stars set in the heavenly sphere, which were evoked in the shapes of radiating sunbursts (shamsas), stellar (sitara) and geometric knot patterns (girih) of jaali windows and screens. The motifs of divine illumination were integral to Sufism as were allegories of light in Islam, such as the ‘Verse of Light’ where God is likened to a light from a lamp in a niche. In Mughal tombs, mosques, and palaces, jaalis mediated between heavenly light and the world of man through a sophisticated language of mathematical patterns, reflections, and shadows.”

In India, they also carved lattice work details into marble jaali screens around royal cenotaphs, empty grave sites for people's remains that were never found. Many stories that weren’t told here, in India and much of the Middle Eastern world, are of women. For example, in mosques and temples, women would be sequestered to the back or the second-story back portion of the building, behind a lattice wall. There, they could observe the service going on ahead of them, but not be seen by any of the men (so as to not distract them with their womanly nature). Or in a king's ancient court, his harem of women would be placed behind the partition as to keep any other man from seeing and desiring what “belongs to the king”.

Islamic and Ottoman Worlds

Here, lattice patterns underwent significant stylistic development reflecting religious, social, and climatic considerations. The origins of mashrabiya, an area built out on upper floors like a closed-off balcony, are uncertain; however, the earliest evidence of the mashrabiya, in its current form, dates to the 12th century in Baghdad during the Abbasid period (Abdullah & Abadi 2001).

Ottoman houses, in particular, were noted for including latticed windows that became iconic features of their domestic architecture. Like in Eastern Asia, the intricate Ottoman wooden lattice screens served multiple functions, including privacy, ventilation, increasing the humidity of the air current, and light filtration (Degirmencioglu 2022). The designs frequently employed complex geometric and arabesque patterns aligned with Islamic artistic traditions, symbolizing divine order and infinity. The refinement of these lattice patterns mirrored the evolution of Islamic architectural principles and the skilled craftsmanship developed over centuries and reflected Islamic artistic traditions and theological concepts.

Privacy and ventilation in Islamic lattice design

Ottoman architecture also employed wooden lattice windows and doors to maintain gender segregation and privacy, being an essential component in residential designs establishing social and climatic boundaries in dense urban settings (Baydoun et al 2025; C Degirmencioglu 2022; Yildiz 1996 & 1998). In addition, movable lattice panels in doors allowed controlled airflow and security, combining function with the option of changing decoration (Song & Liao 2022). 

Chosen for its versatility and ease of carving intricate patterns central to Islamic artistic expression, the wooden latticework is not only decorative but also serves to align with and maintain Islamic cultural principles reflecting the environmental responsiveness and social values of modesty and privacy (Elwan 2020; Baydoun et al. 2025; Dini et al. 2023). Privacy is provided to the home's inhabitants by allowing them to see outside without being observed in return, based on how the sunlight bounces off the barrier, a feature deeply aligned with social and religious norms prevalent in Islamic societies, especially for women’s rooms.

Besides privacy, mashrabiya efficiently manages airflow and sunlight, creating a comfortable indoor environment in hot climates through the passive cooling strategy of filtering the harsh sunlight and reducing heat gain while permitting natural ventilation. This environmental adaptation reflects an advanced understanding of local climatic conditions embedded in Islamic architectural traditions.

The craftsmanship involved in making Islamic lattices involves precise geometric construction, utilizing repetitive interlaced wooden strips assembled often without metal fasteners, relying instead on intricate crafting for durability and aesthetic consistency. These patterns transcend purely functional roles by embodying theological symbolism that manifests divine order, unity, and infinity, thus intertwining spiritual significance with everyday utility (Degirmencioglu 2022).

Materials and techniques in Islamic latticework

The wood used in mashrabiya construction is often hardwood, chosen for its strength and longevity to withstand the climatic conditions, including heat, dust, and humidity. The structural design incorporates a modular system where wooden elements are precisely joined without nails or adhesives but through joinery techniques such as mortise-and-tenon. These methods ensure flexibility and resilience, allowing the lattice panels to be movable or fixed depending on the required privacy and airflow control. (Baydoun et al. 2025). 

In addition to wood, mashrabiya screens can include ornamental carvings and occasionally colored glass inserts in pieces called shabaka, enhancing their decorative function while maintaining their essential role as physical and symbolic barriers. The craftsmanship not only addresses utility but also embodies artistic expression through the complex repetition of geometric patterns that symbolize infinity and spiritual unity in Islamic design philosophy (Li 2023; Baydoun et al 2025). 

This detailed timberwork is often integrated with other architectural components such as stone and plaster, particularly in Ottoman buildings, creating a harmonious fusion of materials that balances durability, functionality, and ornamentation. Regular maintenance and conservation efforts emphasize the importance of these wooden lattice structures in preserving cultural heritage and architectural identity in regions that historically used mashrabiya elements. (Baydoun et al. 2025; Li 2023).

Cultural Patterns

Latticework designs differ from region to region, however, the commonly used patterns include:

• Hexagonal – a simple geometric design with repeating hexagonal patterns (Spencer 1990).

• Kanaysi or Church – long, narrow balusters which are assembled vertically (Akçay & Alothman 2017).

• Maymoni – mesh with rounded balusters in some sections and squared balusters in other areas (Akçay & Alothman 2017).

• Cross – the short round balusters assembled diagonally, vertically, and horizontally (Ashraf 1983).

• Sahrigi (Cistern turnery) large balusters in a wide mesh, and it is typically used in the upper part of the Mashrabiya (Spencer 1990).

• Other – a variety of complex patterns using amalgamation of existing designs and repetition, used by skilled artisans

Effective ventilation and passive cooling could be enhanced by adding a water jar, also known as a qullah, inside the mashrabiya.

Islamic Culture

Islamic lattice patterns derived from religious and cultural imperatives that avoid figurative imagery are used extensively in wooden lattice work, tile work, and stone to decorate architectural spaces representing cultural ideology through geometric motifs (Duggan 2019; Lee 1987; Al Dein. 2022; Qais 2024). They also avoid human or animal imagery due to religious constraints (Dabbour 2012; Sobh & Samy 2018; Lee 1987; Abdullahi & Embi 2013). The use of repetitive geometric designs embodies divine unity, infinity, inner strength, and cosmic order through complex tessellations (a pattern formed by repeating geometric shapes that fit together), star patterns, and numeric symbolism central to Islamic thought including compassion, harmony, and unity (Cromwell 2021; Al Dein 2022). Islamic lattice motifs are deeply interwoven with legends and religious symbolism, while some motifs link to popular folk legends like "Thousand and One Nights," while still others serve as occult symbols infused with spiritual significance (Major 1981; Leoni, Gruber, & Lory 2016;  Rodrigues 2008).

Ottoman Culture

Ottoman lattice work tends to favor biological motifs over purely geometric patterns, integrating crystallographic symmetries that evolved from extending earlier Islamic patterns (Kökçü 2021; Thalal et al 2018; Duggan n.d.;C Bier 2017). These patterns are designed to evoke spiritual presence and divine attributes within architectural spaces, especially in mosques and palaces. 

Ottoman lattice motifs continue Islamic artistic traditions with added cultural layers, embodying myths and legends that reflect divine power and spiritual presence. Motifs such as dragons appear widely in folk stories before Islam and express symbolic battles and mythic themes. Plant motifs in Ottoman lattice work are often imbued with religious meanings, conveying themes of divine creation and compassion. Floral motifs, like tulips and pomegranates, rooted in Ottoman myths symbolize life, death, and rebirth. Designs that express religious devotion, cultural refinement, and imperial identity, play a prominent role in mosque and palace architecture as well (Cenani & Cagdas 2006; Eldem 2016; Çakıroğlu et al. 2025). These motifs are emblematic of professionally refined Ottoman wood art and architecture, transmitting cultural identity and mythological narratives (Baydoun & Bahrudin 2024;  Moralı & Topsakal 2025; Bier 2015; Aslan 2014; Ölmez 2009; Darvishi & Narimani 2022; Öztekin 2024).

Nepal

In Nepal, traditional lattice craftsmanship was deeply connected to local material culture and environmental context. The designs were often simpler than those in Chinese or Islamic contexts but reflected the cultural heritage and practical needs of traditional Nepali settlements (Shrestha 1981).

Nepalese Traditional Architecture

Lattice designs are prominent in Nepal, especially within the Newar architectural tradition. Wooden lattice windows and screens serve the same multiple functions as in other cultures (Shrestha 1981; Maharjan & Dongol 2024). The traditional settlement layouts incorporate latticed wooden screens as barriers, contributing to climate regulation by controlling sunlight and airflow. The use of intricate latticework creates a visual enclosure while facilitating community interactions and cultural tradition preservation (Tiwari 1998). 

Primarily, wooden screens with these local designs are culturally significant and symbolize economic status and regional craftsmanship. (Shrestha 1981; Slusser & Vajrācārya 1974; Ranjit & Shrestha 2023). In Nepalese culture, lattice motifs in wooden windows and screens (jhya) represent both economic success and the spiritual heritage deeply embedded in Nepalese cultural symbolism and the visual landscape of settlements. The carved wooden latticework incorporates designs reflecting the local mythological symbolism and cultural narratives. Legends surrounding motifs are embedded within the architectural fabric, and these elements play a role in religious and social symbolism. The use of specific patterns highlights cultural traditions and communal identity, intertwining myth and daily practice in Nepalese society (Owens 2002; Shah 1989; Maharjan & Dongol 2024; Shrestha 1981; Sharma 2023).

Integration with Religious and Cultural Symbolism

The patterns here often blend Hindu and Buddhist elements, reflecting Nepal’s religious landscape. These motifs not only decorate architectural elements like jhya windows and temple lattices but also serve as symbolic manifestations of spiritual ideals such as enlightenment, purity, and divine protection. (Maharjan & Dongol 2024; Schmidt 1978).

Lattice motifs in woodwork hold distinctive cultural and economic symbolism, such as economic success, cultural familiarity and heritage, and architectural and cultural traditions. The number and pattern of lattice screens, especially in wooden screens on grain storage buildings called bhakaris, symbolized the owner's social standing and prosperity. Finally, like in other regions, lattice screens were used for privacy and ventilation and were an essential part of temple architecture and traditional dwellings, reflecting local religious and social values (Bajracharya & Uprety. 2023; Shrestha 1981; Slusser & Vajrācārya 1974; Ranjit & Shrestha 2023).

Symbolism of Geometric Shapes

Various geometric shapes used in lattice work, such as circles, interlocking polygons, and star-like patterns, carry symbolic meanings tied to spiritual protection and divine beings. Circular motifs often symbolize consciousness, eternity, and the infinite, resonating with Hindu and Buddhist worldview prevalent in Nepalese culture. These motifs invoke the presence of spiritual power, fostering protection and blessings for inhabitants and sacred spaces (Maharjan & Dongol 2024; Sharma 2023; Acharya 2021).

Conveying Spiritual Identity and Artistic Expression

The use of geometric motifs in lattice work is also an expression of indigenous ethno-geometric knowledge, encapsulating Nepalese cultural and spiritual identity. Artists employ these motifs to manifest spiritual narratives and reinforce communal bonds through shared symbolism. This carefully crafted geometric art forms a core part of Nepal’s visual spirituality, making the lattice designs more than ornamental (Shrestha 2018; Shrestha 2019).

Other Regions

Old Western Europe

Lattice-like patterns appear in various forms, including sacred geometric motifs in Greek, Roman, and medieval European architecture, often tied to spiritual, numerological, or cosmic symbolism, highlighting their cultural importance beyond mere functionality, as discussed in the previous two lattice articles (Ackerman 1953; Flannery 1972; Mamedov 1986; Hiscock 2016; Astakhova 2020; Zhang n.d.).

Ancient Rome also integrated doors and windows that were culturally and functionally significant, although not explicitly detailed as lattice work, doors and windows were essential architectural elements connecting indoor and outdoor space (Michielin 2021). Roman shutters featured intricate latticework that admitted a gentle light even when shut. Simpler versions consisted of two separate, solid leaves. In Ovid’s love poetry, there is a text about a room “with ‘one shutter closed tight, the other just ajar,’ which creates 'the light the sort you often see in woods’ ”(Jütte, 2023).

Although less documented in the provided materials, lattice-like designs have appeared in other ancient civilizations, evidenced by the use of wattle and daub techniques involving woven lattices in earthen architecture (Maduabum 2024). Ancient Roman architecture integrated lattice elements such as in stone trellises and lattice structures, emphasizing both structural and aesthetic roles. In medieval European architecture, timber patterns in lattice door designs were also imbued with symbolic meanings tied to numerology and cosmic symbolism (Zhang n.d.; Mamedov 1986; Flannery 1972). 

 These lattice patterns show that they have been consistent symbolic elements across ancient cultures, representing cultural values, spiritual beliefs, and social status (KW Kemp 1981; Cammann 1976; Bonotto n.d.)

Celtic Culture

Celtic lattice patterns are strongly influenced by myths involving cosmic and spiritual journeys, expressed through spirals, knots, and maze-like designs. These motifs represent mythological concepts like eternity, cycles of life, and the interconnectedness of existence. Knotwork and lattice designs often serve as metaphors for mythic stories about creation, protection, and the natural world, embodying abstract imagery that communicates cultural worldview and folklore. (BR Doran 1995; Creighton 1995; Parks 2004).

Persian Culture

Persian lattice motifs incorporate religious and mythological symbolism through trellis and floral designs that evoke cosmic harmony and spiritual protection. In Persian art, delicate lattices or trellis patterns are linked to spiritual meanings influenced by Islamic symbolism, representing spiritual order and protection. These motifs often reflect the ordering of symbols connected to ancient legends and religious allegories. The lattice structures and patterns support symbolic flowers such as peonies and lotuses, which hold mythic meanings within Persian visual culture, blending influences from Islamic and earlier traditions. (Cammann 1976; Sheikh 2017; Vidale 2017). 

Overall, lattice motifs act as symbolic visual languages across cultures, encoding myths and legends into their designs, ranging from mythical creatures like dragons and tortoises to geometric patterns representing cosmic order and spiritual journeys. These motifs communicate cultural identities and narratives, often bridging the sacred with the everyday through architectural elements, craftsmanship, and ornamentation. (He 2023; Fang et al 2024; Aslan 2014; Owens 2002). 

Influences on Lattice Pattern Variations

Influencing Factor — Impact on Lattice Patterns — Cultural Examples

Cultural Heritage — Shapes symbolic motifs and pattern complexity —Chinese auspicious motifs, Islamic tessellations

Religious Symbolism — Guides pattern themes and restrictions on depiction — Islamic aniconism, Christian sacred geometry

Environmental Climate — Dictates structural openness for airflow and shading — Islamic mashrabiya for sunlight control, Nepalese wooden lattices for ventilation

Material and Technology — Determines the crafting techniques and pattern precision — Wood carving in China and Nepal, stucco and stone in Islamic architecture

Social and Aesthetic Preferences — Influences pattern density, motif choice, and purpose — Ottoman floral lattices, modern reinterpretations

Cultural and Religious Influences

Cultural heritage imparts symbolic meanings to lattice patterns, influencing their form and complexity. In Islamic culture, religious tenets guide the use of geometric patterns to avoid depiction of living beings, leading to elaborate mathematical designs expressing spiritual concepts (Dabbour 2012). Similarly, in Chinese tradition, lattices incorporate motifs that symbolize harmony, fortune, and social hierarchy (Zhang et al. 2024). Religious symbolism also shapes Western lattice motifs, where geometry relates to sacred numerology and religious symbolism in church architecture (Hiscock 2016).

Environmental and Climatic Factors

Climatic conditions play a key role in shaping the functional design of lattice patterns. Lattice structures regulate light, airflow, and temperature in buildings, so their form adapts to local climate needs—for example, Islamic mashrabiya screens shade interiors in hot, sunny environments while allowing ventilation. Similarly, Nepal’s wooden lattice windows help moderate indoor climates while maintaining privacy (Maharjan & Dongol 2024). Such bioclimatic design principles cause lattice variations responsive to environmental conditions (Coch 1998).

Technological and Material Availability

The technology and materials available in a region greatly influence lattice design. Cultures using wood can create finely carved lattice panels seen in Chinese and Nepalese architecture, while others relying on stone or stucco produce different lattice textures and patterns, such as those in Indian and Islamic architecture (Kökçü 2021; Slusser & Vajrācārya 1974; Tonna et al 2019; Khan & Riccio 2024; Moj et al. 2024; Liu et al. 2024).

Aesthetic and Social Factors

Aesthetic preferences tied to social customs, status, and artistic trends also affect lattice pattern variations. Ottoman preferences for floral and vegetal motifs reflect cultural tastes and notions of beauty distinct from neighboring Islamic traditions. In many societies, lattices symbolize social boundaries and privacy practices, influencing their density and visibility (Qiong & Sikkha 2024; Bernier 1977; Bajracharya & Uprety 2023).

Modern Application Area — Description

Ventilation & Lighting — Lattice facades/screens for airflow and natural light diffusion

Privacy & Shade — Semi-transparent barriers providing privacy in urban settings

Sustainability — Passive cooling and energy efficiency through shading and airflow control

Cultural Expression — Symbolic use of traditional patterns to connect with heritage

Aesthetic Enhancement — Intricate visual details add depth and texture to modern architecture

Education & Preservation — Using lattice art to teach cultural heritage and craftsmanship

Understanding The Historical Evolution Of Lattice Designs Informs Current Architectural Practices

Integration of Cultural Heritage and Identity

Historical lattice designs embody rich cultural symbols, indigenous materials, and craftsmanship traditions that reflect the identity and values of their originating societies. By studying these historical patterns, contemporary architects can incorporate meaningful cultural references into modern designs, preserving and celebrating local heritage while creating spaces that resonate with users culturally and emotionally (Al-Adilee 2024; Yi 2018; Wang 2021).

Functional Adaptation and Environmental Responsiveness

Traditional lattice designs evolved primarily in response to climatic conditions, offering solutions such as natural ventilation, daylight control, thermal comfort, and privacy. Understanding these functional aspects enables architects to apply similar passive design strategies today, promoting sustainability by reducing reliance on mechanical systems while enhancing user comfort through climate-sensitive design (Kenney 1994; Al-Thahab 2016).

Balancing Aesthetics and Utility

Historical lattice patterns demonstrate a sophisticated blend of ornamental beauty with practical utility. Architects drawing from these precedents can create innovative facade treatments, screens, and partitions that are both visually captivating and functional, for example, optimizing light diffusion, airflow, and privacy, thereby achieving an integrated design approach that addresses multiple requirements simultaneously (Abdullahi & Embi 2013; Rian 2024; Bajracharya & Uprety 2023).

Informing Algorithmic and Computational Design

The complexity and geometry of historical lattice patterns serve as inspiration and data for algorithmic design processes in contemporary architecture. By analysing the mathematical qualities and repeating motifs found in traditional lattice work, designers can utilise computational tools to generate culturally appropriate and context-sensitive lattice facades, thereby enhancing both efficiency and customisation in modern building envelopes (Rian, 2024; Bajracharya & Uprety, 2023).

Enhancing Social and Symbolic Dimensions

Lattice elements historically facilitated social functions such as privacy, modesty, and community interaction. Applying this understanding today helps architects design spaces that respect social norms and cultural practices, fostering appropriate privacy levels and social connectivity. This social awareness rooted in historical evolution can lead to more culturally sensitive architectural solutions (Othman et al. 2015; Jarrar 2013).

Promoting Sustainability and Local Material Use

Historical lattice designs often utilized locally sourced materials and traditional construction techniques adapted to available resources. Recognizing these practices encourages modern architects to prioritize sustainable materials and craftsmanship methodologies that reduce environmental impact and support regional economies (Al-Adilee 2024; Al-Thahab 2016).

Conclusion

Lattice designs have a long history extending to ancient times, predominantly featured in China, Islamic and Ottoman regions, Nepal, and other ancient cultures, where they have been used extensively as windows, doors, and barriers (Qiong & Sikkha 2024; Degirmencioglu 2022; Shrestha 1981; Song & Liao 2022). Their multifunctionality encompasses practical purposes such as ventilation, lighting, privacy, and climate regulation, while simultaneously serving as conveyors of cultural symbolism and aesthetic expression. Lattice patterns are deeply culturally embedded architectural elements whose variations arise from intertwined influences of cultural tradition, religion, environment, material technology, and aesthetics. These factors jointly shape the geometric, symbolic, and functional facets of lattice designs, resulting in diverse manifestations across global cultures while serving shared needs (Zhang et al. 2024; Sobh & Samy 2018; Slusser & Vajrācārya 1974; Coch 1998; Khan & Riccio 2024).

Lattice motifs across these cultures exist as more than decorative elements, embodying rich symbolic narratives concerning luck, divine order, spiritual infinity and spirituality, social hierarchy, philosophical ideals, protection, and cultural identity. Their use in architectural features like windows, doors, and barriers communicates complex cultural messages while fulfilling practical purposes (Lee & Chen 2011; Duggan 2019; Lee 1987; Bajracharya & Uprety 2023; Kemp 1981). Religion shapes lattice motifs by infusing them with symbolic meanings related to cultural identity, such as in Persian and medieval European societies. These patterns serve both aesthetic and didactic purposes, transforming architectural elements into carriers of religious narratives and beliefs across cultures (Luo 2020; Rønning 2009; Duggan n.d.; Slusser & Vajrācārya 1974). Motifs such as the circle symbolizing eternity, unity, and the infinite, as seen in ancient wooden lattice framing. Medieval religious architecture also incorporates latticework reflecting theological ideas, using numeric and geometric symbolism to communicate spiritual messages. These patterns often symbolize eternity, unity, and divine order, serving as visual theology embedded in religious spaces (Cammann 1976; N Hiscock 2016).

From ancient China to Islamic and Ottoman regions, Indian and Nepalese traditions to Celtic designs and other early civilizations, latticework remains a testament to the intricate work through the centuries (Chiou 1997; Dini et al. 2023; Degirmencioglu 2022; Shrestha 1981; Maduabum 2024). This rich heritage underlines the continued appreciation and adaptation of lattice elements in modern architectural design, emphasizing their timeless value in balancing functionality as a structural element but also as a living expression of cultural identity adapted to local conditions and evolving artistic sensibilities. (Yi 2018).

Citation and Further Reading

Z Anjing. (2024). VISUAL ANALYSIS AND EXPLORING OF CHINESE WINDOW LATTICE PATTERNS FOR CONTEMPORARY CERAMIC DECORATION DESIGN. http://202.44.135.157/dspace/handle/123456789/4954

W Zhang, S Xiao, W Wang, & D Seong. (2024). A Comparative Study of Traditional Decorative Patterns in the Lingnan Culture of China. In 문화산업연구. https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11936123

Z Anjing & V Sirivesmas. (2024). The Exploring of Chinese Window Lattice Patterns in Ceramic Decoration: A Case Study in Suzhou Gardens. https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JRKSA/article/view/268735

YJ Lee & CY Chen. (2011). Exploration of the cultural image of chinese form using culture identity design. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-21663-3_52

W Zhang, S Xiao, W Wang, & D Seong. (2024). A Comparative Study of Traditional Decorative Patterns in the Lingnan Culture of China. In 문화산업연구. https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11936123

W Qiong & S Sikkha. (2024). The The Role of Cultural Heritage in Design Education: A Case Study of Suzhou Lattice Windows. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jhssrru/article/view/280572

Z Anjing & V Sirivesmas. (2024). The Exploring of Chinese Window Lattice Patterns in Ceramic Decoration: A Case Study in Suzhou Gardens. https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JRKSA/article/view/268735

X Wang. (2021). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Ornamentation in Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icadce-20/125950863

D Luo. (2020). Dome of Heaven: From the Lantern Ceiling to the Chinese Wooden Dome. In Silk Roads: From Local Realities to Global Narratives. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4914546&publisher=FZ6430#page=146

N He. (2023). The Origin of the Chinese Dragon: The Story of the Chinese Spiritual Totem. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-3451-5_1

X You. (2018). Archetype and archetypal image in Chinese myths, legends and tales. https://repository.essex.ac.uk/23484/

X Fang, L Li, Y Gao, N Liu, & L Cheng. (2024). Expressing the Spatial Concepts of Interior Spaces in Residential Buildings of Huizhou, China: Narrative Methods of Wood-Carving Imagery. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/14/5/1414

R. Cammann, S. V. (1990). The Eight Trigrams: Variants and Their Uses. History of Religions. https://doi.org/10.1086/463201

T Ren. (2021). A study on the symbolic significance of decorative art of huizhou traditional residential buildings. In Open Access Library Journal. https://scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=111441

W Hung. (1986). Buddhist elements in early Chinese art (2nd and 3rd centuries AD). In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249974

EJ Laing. (1988). Chin" Tartar" Dynasty (1115-1234) Material Culture. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250047).

Z Anjing & V Sirivesmas. (2024). The Exploring of Chinese Window Lattice Patterns in Ceramic Decoration: A Case Study in Suzhou Gardens. https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JRKSA/article/view/268735).

S Armani. (2014). The influence of Chinese architecture on traditional Melaka Mosques. https://search.proquest.com/openview/7d9c16da9885167c9e34e3d11cc82f24/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y

Beynon, D. (2010). Architecture, identity and cultural sustainability in contemporary Southeast Asian cities. RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, 44(2), 179–208. https://doi.org/https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.769779236548241#:~:text=%E2%80%A6%20of%20tropical%20design,the%20%E2%80%A6&text=contemporary%20space%2Dmaking.%20The%20best,the%20%E2%80%A6&text=neovernacular%20%E2%80%A6%20Further%20on%2C,the%20%E2%80%A6&text=could%20be%20recognised%20by,the%20%E2%80%A6 ).

Wongpradit, P., Kirdsiri, K., & Chapman, W. (2022). Shophouse façade designs in the port towns of the Andaman Sea and Malay Peninsula. Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences Studies, 452–465. https://doi.org/10.14456/hasss.2022.40); 

H Hung, KD Nguyen, & P Bellwood. (2013). Coastal connectivity: long-term trading networks across the South China Sea. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15564894.2013.781085

S Hong, E Kim, & S Bae. (2020). A development of Shinhanbok coat design using lattice window pattern of Huijeongdang, Changdeokgung palace. In Journal of Fashion Business. https://koreascience.kr/article/JAKO202021961381563.page

H Choi. (2024). The Recognition Matrix of Traditional Korean Munsal Patterns. In Nexus Network Journal. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00004-023-00697-1

E Choi. (2019). Vest design development of fashion culture products based on Korean style-Application of traditional lattice pattern of doors. In Fashion & Textile Research Journal. https://koreascience.kr/article/JAKO201926358472446.page

NS Steinhardt. (2011). The sixth century in East Asian architecture. In Ars Orientalis. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23075959

X Yang. (2017). Heavenly-made Inheritances: The Inner-Asian Architectural Patterns and Their Adaptations in Late Imperial China. https://search.proquest.com/openview/d1ed19af64ba23a541342930043408c1/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366

T Kumala & DT Widyastuti. (2023). ADAPTATION OF MAINLAND CHINA ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ON CHINESE PERANAKAN HOUSES IN YOGYAKARTA. In Built Environment Studies. https://journal.ugm.ac.id/v3/BEST/article/view/5209

C Degirmencioglu. (2022). On Latticed Windows, Disease, and the Materiality of a Bygone Epoch. In Journal of Architectural Education. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10464883.2022.2017714).

S Di Turi & F Ruggiero. (2017). Re-interpretation of an ancient passive cooling strategy: A new system of wooden lattice openings. In Energy Procedia. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217336524

Z Baydoun, M Baydoun, & MH Mustafa. (2025). THE ENDURING LEGACY OF MASHRABIYA IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN. https://planningmalaysia.org/index.php/pmj/article/view/1696

ET Sipahioğlu & CŞ Binan. (2024). A Study on the Conservation and Restoration Process of the Structural Wooden Elements in the 15–18th Century Monumental Ottoman Masonry Buildings. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-73310-9_56

M Özgüleş. (2019). Archival Documents as Sources of Historic Structures’ Construction Materials and Technique: Three Case Studies from Ottoman Architecture. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-99441-3_212

MM Elwan. (2020). The role of traditional Lattice window “Mashrabiya” in delivering single-sided ventilation-A CFD study. https://www.academia.edu/download/64826998/IJETT_V68I9P221.pdf

A Dini, SA Salih, S Ismail, & N Asif. (2023). Principle of privacy in Islamic architectural design context: A systematic literature review. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9aee/139cafa11af83ea54a8026407dcc5899e1b3.pdf). 

AA Bagasi, JK Calautit, & AS Karban (2021). Evaluation of the integration of the traditional architectural element Mashrabiya into the ventilation strategy for buildings in hot climates. In Energies. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/14/3/530

Yildiz, Netice. (1996). YILDIZ, N. (1998). “Ottoman Houses in Cyprus”, Proceedings on the International Symposium on The Ottoman Houses, Papers from the Amasya Symposium, 24-27 September 1996, The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara and the University of Warwick, BIAA Monographs 26, pp. 79-88 and pl. 10.1-8). Movable lattice panels in doors allowed airflow control and security, combining function with decoration.

Y Song & C Liao. (2022). Structural Materials, Ventilation Design and Architectural Art of Traditional Buildings in Guangdong, China. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/12/7/900.

MM Elwan. (2020). The role of traditional Lattice window “Mashrabiya” in delivering single-sided ventilation-A CFD study. https://www.academia.edu/download/64826998/IJETT_V68I9P221.pdf

LM Dabbour. (2012). Geometric proportions: The underlying structure of design process for Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263512000635; 

H Sobh & HA Samy. (2018). Islamic geometric patterns as timeless architecture. https://journals.ekb.eg/article_18946.html;

AJ Lee. (1987). Islamic star patterns. In Muqarnas. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523103;

Y Abdullahi & MRB Embi. (2013). Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural Research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263513000216

A Kökçü. (2021). Crystallographic Patterns in Turkish-Islamic Architecture with the Perspective of the History of Mathematics and Crystallography. In Journal of History Culture and Art Research. https://www.academia.edu/download/78330566/kutaksam_pdf.pdf).

(Avcioglu, Nebahat. (2006). Nebahat Avcioğlu. Review of "The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire" by Gülru Necipoglu. Caa.reviews. 10.3202/caa.reviews.2006.129).

TMP Duggan. (2019). Some Notes Relating to a Modern Misnaming of a Medieval Islamic Design. In MESOS Disiplinlerarası Ortaçağ Çalışmaları Dergisi. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mesos/issue/51428/626032

AJ Lee. (1987). Islamic star patterns. In Muqarnas. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523103

HAFE Al Dein. (2022). Semiotics as an approach to the analysis of symbolism in islamic architectural arts. In Architecture and Engineering. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/semiotics-as-an-approach-to-the-analysis-of-symbolism-in-islamic-architectural-arts

H Qais. (2024). A case study on the influence of geometryand symbolism in Islamic Art withreference of Muslim’s religious Beliefs. In Tercio Creciente. https://revistaselectronicas.ujaen.es/index.php/RTC/article/view/8301

M Baydoun & FIB Bahrudin. (2024). CATEGORISATION OF ISLAMIC WALL DECORATIONS IN FOUR BUILDINGS: VISUAL ANALYSIS AND COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR STYLISTIC AND HISTORICAL …. https://journals.iium.edu.my/kaed/index.php/japcm/article/view/872

G Moralı & Y Topsakal. (2025). A Comprehensive Analysis of Fractal Geometry in the Interior Architecture of the Astana Grand Mosque. In Romaya Journal. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/romaya-journal/issue/91389/1683820

M Öztekin. (2024). Symbolic Approaches in the Development Perspective of Turkish Wood Art, An Overview of Seljuk Interior Designs. In Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mbud/issue/88904/1444786

C Bier. (2015). Geometry in Islamic art. https://www.academia.edu/download/58529514/Bier_2015_Geometry_in_Islamic_Art.pdf

Thalal, Abdelmalek & Ide, Semra & Aboufadil, Youssef & Doğan, Nermin & Koc, Yunus. (2018). Symmetry groups in Islamic geometric art: ornamental patterns of Konya (Turkey) and Marrakech (Morocco). Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances. 74. e421-e422. 10.1107/S205327331808885X. 

TMP Duggan. (2019). Some Notes Relating to the Modern Misnaming of a Medieval Islamic Design Ortaçağ İslam Dünyasına Ait Bir Motifin Modern Dönemde Yanlış Adlandırılmasına …. https://www.academia.edu/download/61735426/Some_Notes_Relating_to_the_Modern_Misnaming_of_a_Medieval_Islamic_Design20200109-7244-1cl1xa4.pdf

C Bier. (2017). Alloys and Architecture: Periodic and Quasiperiodic Patterns in Sinan’s Selimiye in Edirne. In Overturning Certainties in Near Eastern Archaeology. https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004353572/B9789004353572_006.xml

F Rønning. (2009). Islamic patterns and symmetry groups. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=e34680d9afd7bb6836fb471c9b28d14ab80608b6;

B Binmahfooz. (2024). Geometry and Shade: Exploring Space-making Through Islamic Geometric Patterns. https://search.proquest.com/openview/2ce9a6918252d744eb83992e6b7bf2d2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y; C Bier. (2015). Geometry in Islamic art. https://www.academia.edu/download/58529514/Bier_2015_Geometry_in_Islamic_Art.pdf;

LM Dabbour. (2012). Geometric proportions: The underlying structure of design process for Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263512000635;

Y Abdullahi & MRB Embi. (2013). Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural Research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263513000216

Schuyler V. R. Cammann. (1976). Religious Symbolism in Persian Art. History of Religions, 15(3), 193–208. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062524

G Hellemo. (2015). Ottoman Sensoriness: Nature as a Source of Religious Cognition in Istanbul in the Mid-sixteenth Century. In Transcendence and Sensoriness. https://brill.com/downloadpdf/display/book/edcoll/9789004291690/B9789004291690-s008.pdf

FR Major. (1981). The Origins of a Style: An Art-Historical Analysis of the Architectural Motifs at Fatpūr Sīkrī. https://search.proquest.com/openview/99aa0c8d3fd4919f43a0ae2feac47a2a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y

F Leoni, C Gruber, & P Lory. (2016). Power and protection: Islamic art and the supernatural. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2653b08f-00c2-40c4-b5cd-ba6d5eddefba

A Rodrigues. (2008). Islam and symbolism. In Military Review. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA179133577&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00264148&p=AONE&sw=w

F ASLAN. (2014). THE DRAGON MOTIF IN ANATOLIAN LEGENDS. In Journal of International Social Research. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=13079581&AN=97591871&h=lZjb8EiDnd5n2gQTPVp4VI1EorIDY40iQr7thChVNPEw9vhtZ5XjKJCKAS9on0L35iGmcqiyGZ1Z4BDcrAhMLw%3D%3D&crl=c

M Franses. (n.d.). Ottoman rugs. https://www.academia.edu/download/55282840/Franses_2007_Ottoman_Rugs_in_Churches.pdf

F Ölmez. (2009). “DEATH” SYMBOLISM IN TURKISH WEAVINGS. In Art-e Sanat Dergisi. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/sduarte/issue/20722/221423

Darvishi, N., & Narimani, S. (2022). The Symbolic Role of Tulip and Pomegranate Flowers in the Tiling Art of Iran and Ottoman Turkey*. Jaco Quarterly, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.22034/jaco.2022.329920.1234 

M Öztekin. (2024). Symbolic Approaches in the Development Perspective of Turkish Wood Art, An Overview of Seljuk Interior Designs. In Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mbud/issue/88904/1444786

Cromwell, Peter. (2021). Looking at Islamic Patterns I: The Perception of Order. 10.31234/osf.io/qhg3f. 

HAFE Al Dein. (2022). Semiotics as an approach to the analysis of symbolism in islamic architectural arts. In Architecture and Engineering. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/semiotics-as-an-approach-to-the-analysis-of-symbolism-in-islamic-architectural-arts

Cenani, Sehnaz & Cagdas, Gulen. (2006). Shape Grammar of Geometric Islamic Ornaments. 290-297. 10.52842/conf.ecaade.2006.290. 

E Eldem. (2016). THE CHANGING DESIGN AND RHETORIC OF OTTOMAN DECORATIONS, 1850–1920. In The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts. https://www.academia.edu/download/55244607/design_and_rhetoric_of_ottoman_decorations.pdf

B Çakıroğlu, R Akat, EO Çakıroğlu, & T Taşdemir. (2025). Semantic and Syntactic Dimensional Analysis of Rural Wooden Mosque Architecture in Borçka. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/15/2/297

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639

W Qiong & S Sikkha. (2024). The The Role of Cultural Heritage in Design Education: A Case Study of Suzhou Lattice Windows. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jhssrru/article/view/280572

M Majewski & J Wang. (2009). A Journey through Chinese Windows and Doors: An Introduction to Chinese Mathematical Art. https://atcm.mathandtech.org/ep2009/papers_invited/2812009_17224.pdf

B Maharjan & MS Dongol. (2024). Exploring Traditional Nepalese Building Techniques and Timber’s Role Structural Integrity. In KEC Journal of Science and Engineering. https://nepjol.info/index.php/kjse/article/view/69269).

PS Tiwari. (1998). Tradiational Architecture of Kathmandu Valley. In Department of Architecture. http://www.kailashkut.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/earthquakeresistance.pdf).

Siddiqui 2020). Incorporation of Islamic Architectural Features in Nepalese Architecture. https://tuengr.com/V11A/11A9O.pdf).

(MS Slusser & G Vajrācārya. (1974). Two medieval Nepalese buildings: an architectural and cultural study. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249722

RM Bernier. (1977). Wooden windows of Nepal: An illustrated analysis. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250167).

S Ranjit & S Shrestha. (2023). Socio-cultural and Physical Transformation of Religious Squares in Kathmandu: A Case of Lakhe Nani. http://conference.ioe.edu.np/publications/ioegc14/IOEGC-14-147-PS1-003-257.pdf 

BMC Owens. (2002). Monumentality, identity, and the state: Local practice, world heritage, and heterotopia at Swayambhu, Nepal. In Anthropological Quarterly. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/35/article/2148/summary ; 

R Shah. (1989). Ancient and medieval Nepal. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/b7151b7e-d2f3-4e33-a05b-26606c53d5fe/download ; 

B Maharjan & MS Dongol. (2024). Exploring Traditional Nepalese Building Techniques and Timber’s Role Structural Integrity. In KEC Journal of Science and Engineering. https://nepjol.info/index.php/kjse/article/view/69269 ; 

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639 ; 

K Sharma. (2023). Archetypes in Stone Sculptures of Nepal. In Journal of Fine Arts Campus. https://nepjol.info/index.php/jfac/article/view/67288 ).

B Maharjan & MS Dongol. (2024). Exploring Traditional Nepalese Building Techniques and Timber’s Role Structural Integrity. In KEC Journal of Science and Engineering. https://nepjol.info/index.php/kjse/article/view/69269 ; K Sharma. (2023). Archetypes in Stone Sculptures of Nepal. In Journal of Fine Arts Campus. https://nepjol.info/index.php/jfac/article/view/67288 ; 

Acharya, Bed. (2021). Indigenous Geometrical Knowledge of Tamang Community from Their Cultural Practices. 3. 38- 42).

RL Schmidt. (1978). Symbolic fields in Nepalese religious iconography: A preliminary investigation. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110806496.447/pdf?licenseType=restricted 

M Shrestha. (2018). Embodiment of geometry in traditional Newari art: An ethnographic inquiry. https://elibrary.ku.edu.np/handle/20.500.14301/362 ; 

S Shrestha. (2019). Nepali Vernacular Aesthetics in New Light. https://curate.nd.edu/articles/thesis/Nepali_Vernacular_Aesthetics_in_New_Light/24836967.

(L Michielin. (2021). Fores et Fenestrae: A Computational Study of Doors and Windows in Roman Domestic Space. https://www.torrossa.com/it/resources/an/5054808). 

(WJ Siembieda. (1996). Walls and gates: a Latin perspective. In Landscape Journal. https://lj.uwpress.org/content/15/2/113.short

Noble A. (2009). Traditional Buildings. https://www.torrossa.com/it/resources/an/5216210).

MR Bajracharya & S Uprety. (2023). Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. https://nepjol.info/index.php/joetp/article/view/58441

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639

MS Slusser & G Vajrācārya. (1974). Two medieval Nepalese buildings: an architectural and cultural study. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249722

S Ranjit & S Shrestha. (2023). Socio-cultural and Physical Transformation of Religious Squares in Kathmandu: A Case of Lakhe Nani. http://conference.ioe.edu.np/publications/ioegc14/IOEGC-14-147-PS1-003-257.pdf

(KV Flannery. (1972). The cultural evolution of civilizations. In Annual review of ecology and systematics. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096853 ; 

L Zhang. (n.d.). Evolution of Geometrical Pattern. https://www.academia.edu/download/63417439/PatternsLayeringLIOTTA_Book_compressed20200525-15231-ah5vrw.pdf#page=55

KS Mamedov. (1986). Crystallographic patterns. In Computers & Mathematics with Applications. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0898122186904086.

Maduabum, Anthony. (2024). AN INSIGHT INTO THE HISTORY OF EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE. 2582-5208. 10.56726/IRJMETS60295

N Hiscock. (2016). The symbol at your door: number and geometry in religious architecture of the Greek and Latin Middle Ages. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315236872/symbol-door-nigel-hiscock

E Astakhova. (2020). Architectural symbolism in tradition and modernity. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/913/3/032024/meta

P Ackerman. (1953). The symbolic sources of some architectural elements. In Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. https://www.jstor.org/stable/987643

(L Zhang. (n.d.). Evolution of Geometrical Pattern. https://www.academia.edu/download/63417439/PatternsLayeringLIOTTA_Book_compressed20200525-15231-ah5vrw.pdf#page=55

KS Mamedov. (1986). Crystallographic patterns. In Computers & Mathematics with Applications. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0898122186904086

KV Flannery. (1972). The cultural evolution of civilizations. In Annual review of ecology and systematics. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096853).

KW Kemp. (1981). Selected decorative motifs of the ancient world. https://openresearch.okstate.edu/bitstreams/8fe02b67-eade-43b6-9797-e292ad75f0d9/download

Cammann 1976)

GC BONOTTO. (n.d.). SYMBOLS. https://www.academia.edu/download/114617161/Symbols_beyond_Time_by_Giovanni_Carlo_Bonotto.pdf 

YJ Lee & CY Chen. (2011). Exploration of the cultural image of chinese form using culture identity design. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-21663-3_52 

TMP Duggan. (2019). Some Notes Relating to a Modern Misnaming of a Medieval Islamic Design. In MESOS Disiplinlerarası Ortaçağ Çalışmaları Dergisi. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mesos/issue/51428/626032 

AJ Lee. (1987). Islamic star patterns. In Muqarnas. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523103

MR Bajracharya & S Uprety. (2023). Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. https://nepjol.info/index.php/joetp/article/view/58441 

KW Kemp. (1981). Selected decorative motifs of the ancient world. https://openresearch.okstate.edu/bitstreams/8fe02b67-eade-43b6-9797-e292ad75f0d9/download

N Hiscock. (2016). The symbol at your door: number and geometry in religious architecture of the Greek and Latin Middle Ages. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315236872/symbol-door-nigel-hiscock

D Luo. (2020). Dome of Heaven: From the Lantern Ceiling to the Chinese Wooden Dome. In Silk Roads: From Local Realities to Global Narratives. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4914546&publisher=FZ6430#page=146 ; 

F Rønning. (2009). Islamic patterns and symmetry groups. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=e34680d9afd7bb6836fb471c9b28d14ab80608b6 ; 

TMP Duggan. (n.d.). Some Notes Relating to the Modern Misnaming of a Medieval Islamic Design Ortaçağ İslam Dünyasına Ait Bir Motifin Modern Dönemde Yanlış Adlandırılmasına …. https://www.academia.edu/download/61735426/Some_Notes_Relating_to_the_Modern_Misnaming_of_a_Medieval_Islamic_Design20200109-7244-1cl1xa4.pdf ; 

MS Slusser & G Vajrācārya. (1974). Two medieval Nepalese buildings: an architectural and cultural study. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249722 

BR Doran. (1995). Mathematical Sophistication of the Insular Celts: Spirals, Symmetries, and Knots as a Window onto Their World View. In Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20557307

J Creighton. (1995). Visions of power: imagery and symbols in late Iron Age Britain. In Britannia. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/visions-of-power-imagery-and-symbols-in-late-iron-age-britain/44E9299C46936D877430E46F9607411C

HG Parks. (2004). A process for creating Celtic knot work. https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/items/d6689802-155f-4a51-836c-0f4eb7cdf944

Sheikh, Samina. (2017). Persian Allegory of Chinoiserie Motifs-Peonies, Lotuses, Clouds and Water.

M Vidale. (2017). Protohistory of the vara. Exploring the Proto-Indo-Iranian background of an early mytheme of the Iranian Plateau. In Journal of Indo-European Studies. https://www.academia.edu/download/59743981/Vidale_Vara20190615-82263-1na3boz.pdf

N He. (2023). The Origin of the Chinese Dragon: The Story of the Chinese Spiritual Totem. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-3451-5_1

X Fang, L Li, Y Gao, N Liu, & L Cheng. (2024). Expressing the Spatial Concepts of Interior Spaces in Residential Buildings of Huizhou, China: Narrative Methods of Wood-Carving Imagery. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/14/5/1414

F ASLAN. (2014). THE DRAGON MOTIF IN ANATOLIAN LEGENDS. In Journal of International Social Research. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=13079581&AN=97591871&h=lZjb8EiDnd5n2gQTPVp4VI1EorIDY40iQr7thChVNPEw9vhtZ5XjKJCKAS9on0L35iGmcqiyGZ1Z4BDcrAhMLw%3D%3D&crl=c

BMC Owens. (2002). Monumentality, identity, and the state: Local practice, world heritage, and heterotopia at Swayambhu, Nepal. In Anthropological Quarterly. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/35/article/2148/summary

W Zhang, S Xiao, W Wang, & D Seong. (2024). A Comparative Study of Traditional Decorative Patterns in the Lingnan Culture of China. In 문화산업연구. https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11936123).

N Hiscock. (2016). The symbol at your door: number and geometry in religious architecture of the Greek and Latin Middle Ages. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315236872/symbol-door-nigel-hiscock).

B Maharjan & MS Dongol. (2024). Exploring Traditional Nepalese Building Techniques and Timber’s Role Structural Integrity. In KEC Journal of Science and Engineering. https://nepjol.info/index.php/kjse/article/view/69269

H Coch. (1998). —Bioclimatism in vernacular architecture. In Renewable and sustainable energy reviews. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032198000124).

A Kökçü. (2021). Crystallographic Patterns in Turkish-Islamic Architecture with the Perspective of the History of Mathematics and Crystallography. In Journal of History Culture and Art Research. https://www.academia.edu/download/78330566/kutaksam_pdf.pdf; 

MS Slusser & G Vajrācārya. (1974). Two medieval Nepalese buildings: an architectural and cultural study. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249722; 

S Tonna, V Sumini, F Chillè, & C Chesi. (2019). THE USE OF TIMBER INTO THE TRADITIONAL NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE. https://re.public.polimi.it/handle/11311/1125339).

N Khan & A Riccio. (2024). A systematic review of design for additive manufacturing of aerospace lattice structures: Current trends and future directions. In Progress in Aerospace Sciences. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376042124000472; 

K Moj, R Owsiński, G Robak, MK Gupta, & S Scholz. (2024). Measurement of precision and quality characteristics of lattice structures in metal-based additive manufacturing using computer tomography analysis. In Measurement. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224124004676; 

R Liu, W Chen, & J Zhao. (2024). A review on factors affecting the mechanical properties of additively-manufactured lattice structures. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11665-023-08423-1).

W Qiong & S Sikkha. (2024). The Role of Cultural Heritage in Design Education: A Case Study of Suzhou Lattice Windows. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jhssrru/article/view/280572; 

RM Bernier. (1977). Wooden windows of Nepal: An illustrated analysis. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250167). Contemporary designers integrate traditional lattice elements with modern aesthetics, connecting heritage with new cultural expressions 

MR Bajracharya & S Uprety. (2023). Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. https://nepjol.info/index.php/joetp/article/view/58441).

NA Gelil. (2006). A New Mashrabiyya for Contemporary Cairo: Integrating Traditional Latticework from Islamic and Japanese Cultures. In Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3130/jaabe.5.37

H Yi. (2018). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Culture into Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/meici-18/55910091

W Qiong & S Sikkha. (2024). The The Role of Cultural Heritage in Design Education: A Case Study of Suzhou Lattice Windows. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jhssrru/article/view/280572  

MR Bajracharya & S Uprety. (2023). Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. https://nepjol.info/index.php/joetp/article/view/58441 

JM Malnar & F Vodvarka. (2014). Architectural design for living artifacts. https://ecommons.luc.edu/dfpa/13/ ).

G Saypanova. (2024). ETHNOGRAPHY OF PATTERNS: UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL EXPRESSIONS THROUGH DESIGN AND SYMBOLISM. In Академические исследования в современной науке. https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/arims/article/view/49676

Ali, Asif & Lion, Kurlus. (2023). Islamic Traditions in Residential Layout Design: Cultural Values and Architectural Practices. 10.13140/RG.2.2.13668.59521. 

Yanfei, Liu & Azahari, Halabi & Chun, Xing Yan. (2025). Cultural and Artistic Significance of Woodcarving Window Motifs in Traditional Huizhou Architect. International Journal of Advanced Research in Education and Society. 7. 103-118. 10.55057/ajress.2025.7.3.9. 

A Raine. (2024). IN THE FOLDS, IN THE LATTICE. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48813312

X Wang. (2021). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Ornamentation in Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icadce-20/125950863

Y Song & C Liao. (2022). Structural Materials, Ventilation Design and Architectural Art of Traditional Buildings in Guangdong, China. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/12/7/900

S Di Turi & F Ruggiero. (2017). Re-interpretation of an ancient passive cooling strategy: A new system of wooden lattice openings. In Energy Procedia. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217336524

Z Anjing & V Sirivesmas. (2024). The Exploring of Chinese Window Lattice Patterns in Ceramic Decoration: A Case Study in Suzhou Gardens. https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JRKSA/article/view/268735

A Dini, SA Salih, S Ismail, & N Asif. (2023). Principle of privacy in Islamic architectural design context: A systematic literature review. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9aee/139cafa11af83ea54a8026407dcc5899e1b3.pdf

T Kelly. (2022). Ottoman Architecture. In Architecture and Engineering. http://aej.spbgasu.ru/index.php/AE/article/view/599). 

Z Baydoun, M Baydoun, & MH Mustafa. (2025). THE ENDURING LEGACY OF MASHRABIYA IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN. https://planningmalaysia.org/index.php/pmj/article/view/1696). 

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639).

MA Kamal. (2014). The morphology of traditional architecture of Jeddah: Climatic design and environmental sustainability. In Acad J Glob Bus Econ Rev. https://www.academia.edu/download/100428520/The_Morphology_of_Traditional_Architecture_of_Jeddah_Climatic_Design_and_Environmental_Sustainability.pdf).

Adejumo, Olatunji. (2021). FORM IS SYMBOL AND SYMBOL IS MYTH

M Baydoun & FIB Bahrudin. (2024). CATEGORISATION OF ISLAMIC WALL DECORATIONS IN FOUR BUILDINGS: VISUAL ANALYSIS AND COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR STYLISTIC AND HISTORICAL …. https://journals.iium.edu.my/kaed/index.php/japcm/article/view/872). 

SMS Al-Adilee. (2024). The influence of culture and heritage on architectural design. https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/tajiir/article/view/37153;

 H Yi. (2018). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Culture into Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/meici-18/55910091 ; 

X Wang. (2021). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Ornamentation in Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icadce-20/125950863 ).

SF Kenney. (1994). Cultural influences on architecture. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=dbbca47de75f9b522de64a4a6b64bad343bfcb7e

AAL Al-Thahab. (2016). Towards sustainable architecture and urban form. https://wlv.openrepository.com/handle/2436/621928 ).

Y Abdullahi & MRB Embi. (2013). Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural Research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263513000216 ; 

IM Rian. (2024). Random fractal-based computational design of an ice-ray (IR) lattice shell structure. In Frontiers of Architectural Research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263524000025 

M.R. Bajracharya & S. Uprety (2023) Contextual Integration through Computation: Algorithmic Approaches for Incorporating Lattice Patterns into Facade Designs. https://nepjol.info/index.php/joetp/article/view/58441

Z Othman, R Aird, & L Buys. (2015). Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review. In Frontiers of Architectural Research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263514000740 ; 

OM Jarrar. (2013). Cultural influences in Jordanian architectural practices: Post 1990. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/items/72d78c5a-655e-4b15-ab15-fc31b80d870b

SMS Al-Adilee. (2024). The influence of culture and heritage on architectural design. https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/tajiir/article/view/37153

AAL Al-Thahab. (2016). Towards sustainable architecture and urban form. https://wlv.openrepository.com/handle/2436/621928

W Qiong & S Sikkha. (2024). The Role of Cultural Heritage in Design Education: A Case Study of Suzhou Lattice Windows. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jhssrru/article/view/280572

C Degirmencioglu. (2022). On Latticed Windows, Disease, and the Materiality of a Bygone Epoch. In Journal of Architectural Education. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10464883.2022.2017714

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639

Y Song & C Liao. (2022). Structural Materials, Ventilation Design and Architectural Art of Traditional Buildings in Guangdong, China. In Buildings. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/12/7/900

S Chiou. (1997). Computational Considerations of Historical Architectural Analysis: A case study of Chinese traditional architecture. https://search.proquest.com/openview/43a0114d48ee49d296a363cde789f199/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

A Dini, SA Salih, S Ismail, & N Asif. (2023). Principle of privacy in Islamic architectural design context: A systematic literature review. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9aee/139cafa11af83ea54a8026407dcc5899e1b3.pdf

C Degirmencioglu. (2022). On Latticed Windows, Disease, and the Materiality of a Bygone Epoch. In Journal of Architectural Education. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10464883.2022.2017714

MN Shrestha. (1981). Nepal’s traditional settlement: Pattern and architecture. In Journal of Cultural Geography. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638109478639

Maduabum, Anthony. (2024). AN INSIGHT INTO THE HISTORY OF EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE. 2582-5208. 10.56726/IRJMETS60295. 

Yi 2018). The Application of Traditional Window Lattice Culture into Modern Interior Design. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/meici-18/55910091

W Zhang, S Xiao, W Wang, & D Seong. (2024). A Comparative Study of Traditional Decorative Patterns in the Lingnan Culture of China. In 문화산업연구. https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11936123; 

H Sobh & HA Samy. (2018). Islamic geometric patterns as timeless architecture. https://journals.ekb.eg/article_18946.html; 

MS Slusser & G Vajrācārya. (1974). Two medieval Nepalese buildings: an architectural and cultural study. In Artibus Asiae. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249722; 

H Coch. (1998). —Bioclimatism in vernacular architecture. In Renewable and sustainable energy reviews. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032198000124; 

N Khan & A Riccio. (2024). A systematic review of design for additive manufacturing of aerospace lattice structures: Current trends and future directions. In Progress in Aerospace Sciences. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376042124000472).

LM Dabbour. (2012). Geometric proportions: The underlying structure of design process for Islamic geometric patterns. In Frontiers of Architectural research. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263512000635).

Jütte, D. (2023, May 31). The prehistory of glass windows. Lapham’s Quarterly. https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/prehistory-glass-windows 

Abdullah, R.J. and Abadi, E. (2001) Merchants, Mamluks and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth Century Basra, SUNY Press. p. 23

Spencer, J. (1990). Mashrabiya an architectural language (pp. 49-52). Journal of Art & The Islamic World, 18(1), 49-52.

Akçay, Ayten & Alothman, Hiba. (2017). A Theoretical Framework for the Evaluation from the Traditional Mashrabiya to Modern Mashrabiya. Journal of History Culture and Art Research. 6. 107. 10.7596/taksad.v6i3.962. 

Ashraf, S. (1983). Elrawashin of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Passive and low energy”, International Journal of Architectural Research, vol. 1(1) 9-12

Azmi, F. T. (2022, September 21). How India’s Lattice Buildings Cool Without Air Con. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220920-how-indias-lattice-buildings-cool-without-air-con 

Sahoo, P. (2024, January 23). Through time and glass: Exploring 10 Indian window designs. The Architects Diary. https://thearchitectsdiary.com/through-time-and-glass-exploring-10-indian-window-designs/ 

Shubham, S. (2024, August 28). Doorways to culture: Art and symbolism of doors, windows, and Jharokhas in India. Memeraki Retail and Tech Pvt Ltd. https://www.memeraki.com/blogs/posts/doorways-to-culture-art-and-symbolism-of-doors-windows-and-jharokhas-in-india#:~:text=In%20Indian%20architecture%2C%20the%20construction,Jaali%20Window%2C%20Sidi%20Saiyyed%20Mosque 

Haidar, N. N., & Goswami, A. (2023). Jali: Lattice of divine light in Mughal architecture. Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd. 

Lerner, Martin (1984). "JALI SCREEN". The Flame and the Lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian Art from the Kronos. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 156–157.

Thapar, Bindia (2004). Introduction to Indian architecture. Singapore: Tuttle Publishing. 81.

Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerry; Luo, Yongxian (2008). The Tai-Kadai Languages. Routledge (published 20 August 2008). p. 9. ISBN 978-0-700-71457-5.

Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C.–A.D. 907. University of Hawaiʻi Press (published 1 May 2001). p. 150. ISBN 978-0-824-82465-5.

Diller, Anthony (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-415-68847-5.

Wang, William (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. Oxford University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-199-85633-6.

Barlow, Jeffrey G. (1997). "Culture, ethnic identity, and early weapons systems: the Sino-Vietnamese frontier". In Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven; Jay, Jennifer W. (eds.). East Asian cultural and historical perspectives: histories and society—culture and literatures. Research Institute for Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies, University of Alberta. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-921-49009-8.

Hsu, Cho-yun; Lagerwey, John (2012). Y. S. Cheng, Joseph (ed.). China: A Religious State. Columbia University Press (published 19 June 2012). pp. 193–194.

Meacham, William (1996). "Defining the Hundred Yue". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 15: 93–100.

Music:

Lattice design is an eye-catching barrier for doors and windows, combining usefulness with beauty. Its crisscross pattern allows light and air while maintaining privacy and security. This strong yet stylish structure is practical and often seen in gardens, patios, and traditional homes. Made from wood or metal, lattice can match any style. Whether for decoration or protection, lattice design is a classic choice that blends looks with function.